Private Equity and LBO Interview Questions: An Answer in Detail

For the last ten years, a company has had a positive EBITDA, yet it recently went bankrupt. What are the chances of this happening?

A company with a positive EBITDA (Earnings Before Interest, Taxes, Depreciation, and Amortization) over a period of time is generally considered to be profitable and financially stable. However, it's not uncommon for companies that have had a positive EBITDA over a period of time to still go bankrupt. There are several reasons why this can happen:

High debt levels: Even if a company has a positive EBITDA, it can still go bankrupt if it has a high level of debt that it cannot service. The company may not be generating enough cash flow to make interest and principal payments on its debt, which can lead to default and bankruptcy.
Unforeseen events: A company may go bankrupt due to unforeseen events such as a recession, natural disaster, or a significant loss of customers. These events can cause a sharp decline in revenue and make it difficult for the company to generate enough cash flow to meet its financial obligations.
Industry-specific factors: Some industries may be more susceptible to bankruptcy, such as highly cyclical industries, or those with low barriers to entry and intense competition.
Mismanagement: a company may go bankrupt due to poor management decisions such as overinvestment, over-leverage, or lack of diversification.

It's worth noting that EBITDA is a non-GAAP metric that only takes into account certain financial factors, and it may not capture all the financial risks or challenges of the company, such as high debt levels, or the company's ability to generate cash flow. Therefore, it's important to look at other financial metrics and ratios, such as the company's debt-to-equity ratio, cash flow, and liquidity, in order to get a comprehensive view of the company's financial health.

Walk me through how you will create a revenue model for a company.

Creating a revenue model for a company involves forecasting the company's future revenue based on historical data and industry trends. Here is a general process that can be used to create a revenue model:

Gather historical financial data: The first step is to gather historical financial data, such as revenue, expenses, and profit margins for the company. This data can be used to identify trends and patterns that can be used to forecast future revenue.
Identify drivers of revenue: Next, identify the key drivers of revenue for the company, such as the number of customers, the average sale price, and the number of products or services sold. These drivers can be used to forecast future revenue.
Analyze industry trends: Research and analyze industry trends, including market size, growth rate, and competitive landscape. This will help to understand the overall market conditions and how they may impact the company's revenue.
Build a financial model: Using the historical data, key drivers of revenue, and industry trends, build a financial model to forecast future revenue. This model can include different scenarios, such as conservative, base, and optimistic scenarios, which can be used to reflect different outcomes.
Validate the model: Validate the model by comparing the forecasted revenue with actual revenue and making adjustments as necessary.
Communicate and present the model: Once the model is built, it should be clearly communicated and presented to the management, investors, or other stakeholders.

It's worth noting that building a revenue model is an iterative process, it's also important to regularly revisit and update the model as new information becomes available, or if the company's strategy changes. Also, different industries and companies may require different approach and assumptions to forecast the revenue.

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What are some examples of non-recurring charges that need to be added back to a company ?

Non-recurring charges are expenses that a company incurs that are not expected to occur again in the future. These charges can have a significant impact on a company's financial statements and should be separately identified and added back when analyzing a company's financial performance. Some examples of non-recurring charges include:

Restructuring costs: These are costs incurred as a result of a company restructuring its operations, such as closing facilities or laying off employees.
Impairment charges: These are charges taken when a company's assets, such as property, plant, and equipment or goodwill, are deemed to be worth less than their carrying value on the balance sheet.
Legal and regulatory costs: These are costs incurred as a result of legal or regulatory action, such as fines, settlements, or legal fees.
Merger and acquisition costs: These are costs incurred in connection with a merger or acquisition, such as due diligence expenses, legal and accounting fees, and severance costs.
Asset write-offs: These are charges taken when a company writes off an asset that is no longer useful or valuable.
Loss on disposal of assets: These are charges taken when a company disposes of an asset, such as selling a property or equipment for less than its carrying value.
Non-operating gains or losses: These are gains or losses that are not associated with the company's normal operations, such as gains or losses from investments or the sale of a subsidiary.
Foreign currency exchange losses/gains

It's worth noting that non-recurring charges can have a significant impact on a company's financial statements, and they may not be indicative of the company's underlying performance, therefore it's important to add them back when analyzing a company's financial performance to obtain a better understanding of the company's true financial condition.

In a three-statement model, how do you estimate Balance Sheet elements like Accounts Receivable and Accrued Expenses?

In a three-statement financial model, estimating balance sheet elements like accounts receivable and accrued expenses requires analyzing the company's historical financial data and making assumptions about future trends. Here are a few steps to estimate these elements:

Analyze historical data: Review the company's historical financial statements to identify trends in accounts receivable and accrued expenses. Look at the balance sheet and income statement to see how they have changed over time and how they are affected by other financial metrics.
Identify drivers of accounts receivable and accrued expenses: Identify the key drivers that affect accounts receivable and accrued expenses, such as sales, payment terms, and vendor terms. For example, a company with longer payment terms may have higher accounts receivable, while a company with shorter payment terms may have lower accounts receivable.
Project future changes: Based on the historical data and identified drivers, project future changes in accounts receivable and accrued expenses. For example, if a company is expecting to increase sales in the future, it may also expect to see an increase in accounts receivable.
Incorporate assumptions: Incorporate assumptions about future trends and events that may affect accounts receivable and accrued expenses. For example, if a company is expecting to change its payment terms, this should be reflected in the model.
Validate assumptions: Validate the assumptions made about accounts receivable and accrued expenses by comparing the model's projections to actual results. Make adjustments as necessary.
Communicate the assumptions: Clearly communicate the assumptions made about accounts receivable and accrued expenses to stakeholders, so they understand the reasoning behind the projections.

It's worth noting that these steps are not mutually exclusive, and often a combination of them is used to estimate balance sheet elements like accounts receivable and accrued expenses. Additionally, it's important to keep in mind that assumptions may change over time and the model should be regularly reviewed and updated accordingly.

Tell me why do you need to add Minority Interest to Enterprise Value?

Minority interest is the portion of a subsidiary's equity that is not owned by the parent company. In other words, it represents the portion of the subsidiary's equity that is owned by outside shareholders or investors.

When calculating Enterprise Value (EV) which is a measure of a company's total value, including debt, cash, and other assets, it's important to include the value of the minority interest because it represents an ownership stake in the company. The value of minority interest is calculated by multiplying the percentage of ownership by the equity value of the company.

The reason for adding minority interest to the EV is that it represents an economic interest in the company, therefore it should be considered as part of the company's total value. Additionally, when a company is acquired, the acquiring company will also be acquiring the minority interest, therefore it's important to include the value of minority interest in the overall valuation of the company.

It's worth noting that, when a company has a controlling interest in a subsidiary, the financial statements of the subsidiary are consolidated with the parent company's financial statements, which means that the minority interest is not reflected on the balance sheet, income statement or cash flow statement of the parent company. However, it's important to consider the value of minority interest when valuating the company.

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When should a DCF not be used in a valuation?

A discounted cash flow (DCF) analysis should not be used in a valuation when the company being valued does not have a reliable forecast of future cash flows, or if the company operates in an industry where the future cash flows are highly uncertain or difficult to predict. Additionally, a DCF may not be appropriate for companies that have a short operating history or have recently undergone significant changes, as it can be difficult to predict future cash flows for these companies. Additionally, a DCF analysis may not be appropriate for companies that are in bankruptcy or are expected to go bankrupt, as the future cash flows for these companies are highly uncertain and difficult to predict.

When is an LBO Analysis for use as part of a valuation?

A leveraged buyout (LBO) analysis is typically used as part of a valuation when a company is being acquired by a private equity firm or another type of financial sponsor. LBO analysis is used to evaluate the financial feasibility of a leveraged buyout, which is a transaction in which a company is acquired using a significant amount of debt financing. In an LBO analysis, the company's projected free cash flows are used to pay off the debt over time. An LBO analysis is also used to calculate the internal rate of return (IRR) and the equity multiple of the investment, which are key metrics used by private equity firms and other financial sponsors to evaluate potential investment opportunities.

What are the three main uses of funds in a transactions

The three main uses of funds in a transaction are:

Repayment of debt: In a leveraged buyout (LBO) or other transactions involving the acquisition of a company, a significant portion of the funds raised may be used to repay debt, such as bank loans or bond financing.
Working capital: Some of the funds raised in a transaction may be used to provide working capital for the acquired company, which can be used to fund ongoing operations and growth.
Return of capital to investors: In some transactions, a portion of the funds raised may be used to provide a return of capital to investors, such as shareholders or limited partners in a private equity fund. This is often done as part of a recapitalization or restructuring of the company.

It's worth noting that the specific use of funds can vary depending on the nature of the transaction, type of company and the target company's financial and operational conditions.

What does the difference between maintenance and incurrence covenants ?

Maintenance covenants and incurrence covenants are both types of financial covenants that are included in loan agreements and bond indentures.

Maintenance covenants: These are financial ratios or other metrics that the borrower is required to maintain on an ongoing basis. For example, a maintenance covenant may require the borrower to maintain a certain level of liquidity, such as a minimum cash balance or a minimum ratio of cash to debt. If the borrower fails to maintain these ratios, it is considered a default and the lender can take action, such as calling the loan or accelerating repayment.
Incurrence covenants: These are financial ratios or other metrics that the borrower is not allowed to exceed at any time. For example, an incurrence covenant may limit the amount of additional debt that the borrower can take on, or limit the amount of dividends that the borrower can pay out. If the borrower exceeds these ratios, it is considered a default and the lender can take action, such as calling the loan or accelerating repayment.

In summary, maintenance covenants are ongoing requirements that the borrower must maintain at all time, while incurrence covenants are limits on what the borrower can do in terms of taking on new debt or making dividend payments.

In an LBO model, how does assuming debt work?

In a leveraged buyout (LBO) model, assuming debt refers to the process of acquiring a company using a significant amount of debt financing. This can include bank loans, bond financing, or other types of debt.

The LBO model is used to evaluate the financial feasibility of the acquisition by projecting the company's future cash flows and using them to pay off the debt over time.

The process of assuming debt in an LBO model typically includes the following steps:

Establishing a base case: This includes forecasting the company's future revenue, expenses, and cash flows.
Identifying the sources of debt financing: This includes determining the amount of debt that will be required to finance the acquisition and identifying potential sources of debt financing.
Projecting the repayment of debt: This includes forecasting the company's future cash flows and using them to pay off the debt over time. In addition, interest and amortization payments are also projected.
Evaluating the feasibility of the LBO: This includes analyzing the company's projected financial metrics such as debt-to-equity ratio, interest coverage ratio, and cash flow coverage ratio to assess the feasibility of the LBO and the ability of the company to service the debt.
Sensitivity analysis: This includes testing the model with different assumptions about the company's future cash flows, interest rates, and other variables to evaluate the risk and sensitivity of the investment.

It's worth noting that the LBO model is a simplified representation of the process, the actual process is more complex, it's necessary to take into account the company's specific financial and operational conditions and the market conditions.

What role do legal and advisory fees play in an LBO?

In a leveraged buyout (LBO), legal and advisory fees can play an important role in the overall cost of the transaction.

Legal Fees: Legal fees include the costs of hiring attorneys to handle various aspects of the transaction, such as drafting and reviewing the purchase agreement, conducting due diligence, and handling regulatory approvals. These fees can be significant, and typically are paid by the buyer.
Advisory Fees: Advisory fees include the costs of hiring investment bankers, financial advisors, or other professionals to provide advice and assistance on the transaction. These fees can also be significant, and are typically paid by the buyer.

Both Legal and advisory fees are considered part of the transaction expenses and are typically paid out of the proceeds of the transaction, which means that they are added to the debt of the company, increasing the leverage of the LBO.

The amount of legal and advisory fees can vary depending on the size and complexity of the transaction, the type of company being acquired, and the market conditions. It's important to consider these costs when evaluating the financial feasibility of an LBO and the potential return on investment.

What role do finance fees have in the LBO model?

In a leveraged buyout (LBO) model, finance fees refer to the costs associated with borrowing the money used to finance the acquisition. These fees can include interest on the debt, origination fees, and other costs associated with obtaining the debt financing.

In the LBO model, finance fees play a critical role in the overall return on investment and the ability of the company to service the debt. The LBO model is used to evaluate the financial feasibility of the acquisition by projecting the company's future cash flows and using them to pay off the debt over time, including the finance fees.

The finance fees are typically included in the interest expense line in the pro-forma income statement, which is used to project the company's future cash flows. The interest expense is calculated based on the amount of debt, the interest rate, and the repayment schedule.

It's important to consider the finance fees when evaluating the financial feasibility of an LBO and the potential return on investment. The higher the finance fees, the more debt is required to be serviced and the higher the risk of default. Therefore, lower interest rate, lower origination fees and other finance fee can increase the chance of success in an LBO.

What happens if the company already has debt that is assumed in the LBO?

When a company being acquired in a leveraged buyout (LBO) already has existing debt, the existing debt is typically assumed by the acquiring entity. This means that the acquiring entity takes on responsibility for repaying the existing debt as part of the LBO. The existing debt is included in the total amount of debt used to finance the acquisition.

In the LBO model, the existing debt is included in the pro-forma balance sheet and the pro-forma income statement, along with the new debt that is being used to finance the acquisition. The pro-forma financial statements are used to project the company's future cash flows and evaluate the financial feasibility of the LBO.

The existing debt is typically included in the interest expense line in the pro-forma income statement, along with the finance fees associated with the new debt. This is used to project the company's future cash flows and calculate the company's ability to service the debt.

It's important to consider the existing debt when evaluating the financial feasibility of an LBO and the potential return on investment. The existing debt increases the leverage of the LBO, which increases the risk of default and makes it more difficult to generate a positive return on investment. Therefore, it's important to evaluate the existing debt, the terms of the existing debt, and the ability of the company to service the existing debt before proceeding with the LBO.

What impact would a dividend recap have on an LBO's three financial statements?

A dividend recap refers to a financial restructuring where a company that has been acquired in a leveraged buyout (LBO) pays out a large dividend to its shareholders, typically the private equity firm that owns the company. This is typically done by borrowing additional funds, which increases the company's debt levels.

The impact of a dividend recap on an LBO's three financial statements (balance sheet, income statement and cash flow statement) is as follows:

Balance Sheet: The dividend recap will increase the company's debt levels, as additional funds are borrowed to pay the dividend. This will lead to an increase in liabilities and a decrease in equity. The debt-to-equity ratio will also increase, which can make the company's financial position more leveraged and riskier.
Income Statement: The dividend recap will increase the company's interest expense, as it has to pay interest on the additional debt used to pay the dividend. This will reduce the company's net income and increase the company's debt service coverage ratio (DSCR).
Cash Flow Statement: The dividend recap will decrease the company's cash flows from operations, as a portion of the cash flows will be used to pay the dividend and the interest on the additional debt. This will reduce the amount of cash available for other uses such as reinvestment, debt repayment, and working capital.

It's important to note that a dividend recap can help the private equity firm to receive a cash return on their investment, but it can also increase the risk of the company and decrease its ability to generate sufficient cash flows to service the debt and make future investments.

Why do inventory purchases have no effect on the revenue statement?

Inventory purchases have no direct effect on the revenue statement because they are considered to be a cost of goods sold (COGS), rather than a revenue item.

The revenue statement, also known as the income statement, is used to show a company's financial performance over a period of time by reporting its revenues, costs, and expenses. The revenue statement typically includes items such as sales revenue, cost of goods sold (COGS), gross profit, operating expenses, and net income.

Inventory purchases are considered to be a part of the COGS, which is subtracted from the sales revenue to calculate the gross profit. COGS includes the direct costs associated with producing or acquiring the goods that were sold during the period. These costs include the cost of raw materials, labor, and other direct costs. Inventory purchases are included in the cost of goods sold (COGS) because they are the cost associated with acquiring the goods that the company will sell.

When a company buys inventory, it is recorded as an asset on the balance sheet and it's expensed when the items are sold and recorded as COGS on the income statement. Therefore, inventory purchases do not have a direct effect on the revenue statement but they do affect the COGS and therefore the gross profit and the net income.

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Why would a business take money from a customer and not record it as revenue?

A business may take money from a customer and not record it as revenue for several reasons, including:

Advance payments: A business may receive advance payments from customers for goods or services that have not yet been delivered or performed. In this case, the business may not record the payment as revenue until the goods or services have been delivered or performed.
Deferred revenue: A business may receive payments for goods or services that will be delivered or performed at a later date. In this case, the business may record the payment as a liability on the balance sheet, known as deferred revenue, until the goods or services have been delivered or performed.
Sales returns and allowances: A business may receive money from a customer for returned goods or as a sales allowance. In this case, the business may not record the payment as revenue since it is a reduction of previously recorded revenue.
Deposits: A business may require customers to make a deposit on an order or a contract, in this case the business may not record the deposit as revenue until the order or contract is fulfilled.

It's important to note that these are examples and the specific accounting treatment may vary depending on the nature of the transaction and the accounting principle used. The reason for not recording money from a customer as revenue is that it does not meet the criteria for revenue recognition, which is the process of recognizing revenue in the financial statement when it's earned and realized (or realizable) and earned.

What happens to cash collected if it's not recognized as revenue?

Cash collected that is not recognized as revenue is typically classified as a liability on the balance sheet, such as deferred revenue or a deposit. This means that the cash is recorded as a liability, rather than as revenue, because it represents an obligation to deliver goods or services in the future.

For example, if a business receives an advance payment from a customer for goods or services that have not yet been delivered, the business will record the cash as a liability on the balance sheet, known as deferred revenue. When the goods or services are delivered, the deferred revenue will be recognized as revenue.

Another example, if a business receives a deposit from a customer for an order or a contract, the deposit will be recorded as a liability on the balance sheet, and will be recognized as revenue when the order or contract is fulfilled.

In summary, cash collected that is not recognized as revenue represents an obligation or an advance payment for goods or services that will be delivered or performed in the future. The cash is recorded as a liability on the balance sheet, and will be recognized as revenue when the obligation is fulfilled.

It's important to note that the specific accounting treatment may vary depending on the nature of the transaction and the accounting principle used. The recognition of revenue is a complex process that requires an understanding of the revenue recognition principle and the specific accounting standards that apply to the business.

How might it be that two companies with identical financial profiles are purchased by the same acquirer, but the EBITDA multiple for one transaction is twice that of the other?

EBITDA (Earnings Before Interest, Taxes, Depreciation and Amortization) multiple is a commonly used valuation metric in mergers and acquisitions. It is calculated by dividing the enterprise value of a company by its EBITDA. The EBITDA multiple can vary significantly between companies with similar financial profiles, even if they are purchased by the same acquirer.

There could be several reasons why two companies with identical financial profiles are purchased by the same acquirer, but the EBITDA multiple for one transaction is twice that of the other:

Industry factors: The EBITDA multiple can vary depending on the industry in which the company operates. For example, companies in a growth industry may fetch a higher EBITDA multiple than companies in a mature industry.
Market conditions: The EBITDA multiple can be affected by the overall market conditions. For example, in a hot market, companies may fetch a higher EBITDA multiple than in a weaker market.
Company-specific factors: The EBITDA multiple can also vary depending on company-specific factors such as the company's growth prospects, competitive position, and management team.
Synergies: The acquirer may see additional value in one of the companies due to the potential for cost savings or revenue growth resulting from synergies. This could justify a higher EBITDA multiple for that company.
Tax benefits: The acquirer may see a tax benefit in one of the companies that could affect the purchase price and the EBITDA multiple.

It's worth noting that EBITDA multiple is a relative valuation method, it's just one of the methods used to value a company and it's important to look at other methods such as DCF, LBO, Comps, etc. to have a more accurate valuation. The EBITDA multiple is a tool that helps to compare the relative value of different companies, but it does not provide an absolute value for the company being valued.

What is the difference between EV/EBIT, EV/EBITDA, and P/E?

The Enterprise Value to Earnings Before